Jefferson Davis :: essays research papers

Jefferson Davis was born on June, 3rd, 1808, in Christian County, Kentucky. He was educated at Transylvania University and at the U.S. Military Academy. After his graduation in 1828, he served in the army until bad health forced him to residn in 1835. He was a farmer in Mississippi from 1835 to 1845. Then he was elected to the U.S. congress. In 1846, he resigned his seat in order to serve in the Mexican War and fought at Monterrey and Buena Vista, where he was wounded. He was a U.S. Senator from Mississippi from 1847 to 1857, and a U.S. Senator again from 1857 to 1861. As a Senator, he was in support of slavery and states' rights. "He also influenced Pice to sign in the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which favored the South and increased the bitterness of the struggle over slavery. (Encarta, Davis Jefferson. 97)" In his second term as a Senator he became the spokesman for the Southern point of view. He opposed the idea of secession from the Union as a way of maintaining the principles in the South. Even after the first steps toward secession had been taken, he tried to keep the Southern states in the Union. When the state of Mississippi seceeded, he withdrew from the Senate. On February 18, 1861, the congress of the Confederate States made him president. He was elected to the office by popular vote for a 6-year term and was inaugurated un Richmond, Virginia, the new capital of the Confederacy. He failed to raise enough money to fight the Civil War and could not obtain help for the Confederacy from foreign governments. One of the accomplishments of Jefferson Dacis, was the raising of the Confederate army. Davis had a difficult task to preform. He was the head of the new nation in the beginnings of a major war. The South had inferior railroads compared to the Union, no navy, no gunpowder mills, and a reat lack of arms and ammunition. "The South's only resource seemed to have been of cotton and courage." (Davis, W. P 128). Despite this, the Confederates demolished the North at the battle of Bull Run. Somehow, with limited resources, Dacis made facotries for arms, cannons, powders and ammunition. Old naval yards were restored and gunboats were built. Davis sent agents to Europe to buy arms and ammunition and representatives were sent to try and secure help from England and France.

Supremacist Ideologies in Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness Essay

Supremacist Ideologies in Heart of Darkness Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness colludes with the ethnocentric attitude of Europeans towards the native people of Africa. At the turn of the century, European imperialism was viewed as "a crusade worthy of this century of progress" by King Leopold of Belgium. Although Conrad was critical of imperialism, his novella reveals to the reader an undeniable Victorian provenance. It endorses cultural myths of the period and reinforces the dominant ideology of the British gentleman. Its Victorian provenance is revealed in the representation of race, which is constructed through the character Marlow. His powerful narrative viewpoint reinforces what Chinua Achebe called Europe's "comforting myths" about Africa and Africans. The text consistently constructs black people as 'other'. This is achieved primarily by Marlow, who acts to construct the natives from the vantage point of the British gentleman. When he "looked at them", he searched not only for their "impulses, motives, capacities" but also for restraint, a value that he champions throughout the retelling of his story. When he can't find it, he remarks "Restraint? What possible restraint?" Marlow's first encounter with the natives is at the Outer Station, where his ambivalence towards them is foregrounded by his obsession with the miraculously efficient first-class agent. The natives are effectively dehumanised because they are presented as nothing more than "black shadows" and "acute angles"; and Marlow is far more interested in the fact that the accountant kept his books in "apple-pie order" than with the dying black men outside. Similarly, when Marlow stumbles across "a middle-aged negro, with a bullet-hole in the... ...t inexorably associates the continent and its people with darkness. We have the natives described as "black shapes", "strings of dusty niggers" and "a whirl of black limbs". This imagery also often associates Africans with supernatural evil. Near the Inner Station: "A black figure stood up, strode on long black legs, waving long black arms, across the glow. It had horns... some sorcerer, some witch-man, no doubt; it looked fiend-like enough" The African landscape is not only culpable for Kurtz's wrongs, but it is also a place of darkness and of evil, a place of paganism, with "the throb of drums, the drone of weird incantations"; a place of "lurking death", cannibalism, disease and insanity - all of Marlow's reality is filtered through the European consciousness, and all of his narrative serves to endorse European supremacist ideologies.

American History X :: Movies Film

Recently we watched a movie called American History X. It touched on a lot of major subjects such as gang violence and racism, which has been passed on from generation to generation. It also asked questions like, what were their racist ideas really based on, how did racism effect the community, can racism be reshaped by actual experiences, and how or why racism to begin with? Racism has been the main topic in the judicial system, police affairs, and racially divided communities for years but it's neither disappearing nor growing to this today. In this movie the main character was a man named Derek. After the death of his father, due to gang violence, he became a racist to all others but white people. He blamed the lack of jobs and poor wages on the blacks and immigrants. In an interview he had after the death of his father he stated that, it's all the blacks fault for all the violence in their neighborhood. He also said that, they brought all the diseases like AIDS and it's their problem and why did they have to bring it to the white people. Before he vandalized a store, owned by a Chinese man, with his other racist friends he told them why they were doing this. He told them that these immigrates come here an instead of looking for the American dream they come and take advantage of it and by firing those who worked there before and hiring Mexicans and blacks, that are willing to work at a low-wage, they make more money. So he and his friends need to show them that they indeed don't belong here and no one wants them her e. After brutally killing two people, in cold blood, Derek was arrested and sentenced to six years in prison. In prison, there were some like him and had the same thoughts but didn't stay true to their beliefs. He wondered why did his fellow skin-heads had confrontations with others outside of the group for product and merchandise and then turned around and sell it to his own. This kind of activity puzzled Derek who later in the movie came to the realization that there is nothing wrong about talking to blacks and others. Slowly, as the months passed, in jail he started developing a new found respect for everyone no matter their color or race, he started talking to his black laundry folding partner, and stopped hanging or talking to his Nazi friends . American History X :: Movies Film Recently we watched a movie called American History X. It touched on a lot of major subjects such as gang violence and racism, which has been passed on from generation to generation. It also asked questions like, what were their racist ideas really based on, how did racism effect the community, can racism be reshaped by actual experiences, and how or why racism to begin with? Racism has been the main topic in the judicial system, police affairs, and racially divided communities for years but it's neither disappearing nor growing to this today. In this movie the main character was a man named Derek. After the death of his father, due to gang violence, he became a racist to all others but white people. He blamed the lack of jobs and poor wages on the blacks and immigrants. In an interview he had after the death of his father he stated that, it's all the blacks fault for all the violence in their neighborhood. He also said that, they brought all the diseases like AIDS and it's their problem and why did they have to bring it to the white people. Before he vandalized a store, owned by a Chinese man, with his other racist friends he told them why they were doing this. He told them that these immigrates come here an instead of looking for the American dream they come and take advantage of it and by firing those who worked there before and hiring Mexicans and blacks, that are willing to work at a low-wage, they make more money. So he and his friends need to show them that they indeed don't belong here and no one wants them her e. After brutally killing two people, in cold blood, Derek was arrested and sentenced to six years in prison. In prison, there were some like him and had the same thoughts but didn't stay true to their beliefs. He wondered why did his fellow skin-heads had confrontations with others outside of the group for product and merchandise and then turned around and sell it to his own. This kind of activity puzzled Derek who later in the movie came to the realization that there is nothing wrong about talking to blacks and others. Slowly, as the months passed, in jail he started developing a new found respect for everyone no matter their color or race, he started talking to his black laundry folding partner, and stopped hanging or talking to his Nazi friends .

Man vs. Society

Society excludes, torments, and sometimes kills people simply because of their religion. We might not always see it or hear it, but it’s there. Religious persecution is everywhere. It is in our schools, it is in our government, it is engrained in our society. Naturally people persecute and torment those who are not like them, be them Muslim, Mormon, Hindu, or even Christian. Yes, even Christians are being persecuted. We in America hear â€Å"so often about Muslims [being] victims of abuse in the West†(Ali).But what we don’t realize that there is another war. An â€Å"unrecognized war†(Ali) taking place everywhere from West Africa to the Middle East to South Asia and Oceania. A war on Christians. Christians are the most persecuted group in the contemporary world. â€Å"According to the World Evangelical Alliance, over 200 million Christians in 60 countries are denied fundamental human rights solely because of their faith†(Persecution of Christians). In Egypt, Christians are forced under strict rules that do not apply to mosques and other religious institutions.For example, under Hamayouni Decree, Christians have to go through the federal government in order to build, or even repair their buildings (Persecution of Christians). Not only does Egypt restrict Christians’ ability to build and maintain churches, but also their ability to hold positions. Christians cannot hold senior government positions, diplomatic positions, be in the military, or hold teaching positions (Persecution of Christians).Also, the Egyptian government does not recognize conversions from Islam to Christianity, and since inter-faith marriages in the country are illegal, converts cannot marry people born in Christian communities, and their children receive an Islamic education (Persecution of Copts). After the â€Å"Arab Spring† movement, there have been even more accounts of Christian persecution. Arab Spring is â€Å"a revolutionary wave of de monstrations that has been taking place in the Arab world †¦ [that is] successfully overthrowing their repressive governments†(Cha-cha).The overthrow of the government of Libya, the civil uprisings in Bahrain, Syria, and Yemen, and the major protests in Algeria, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, and Oman (Arab Spring) are allowing Islamic extremists to gain power, and this is very worrisome for many Christians. The Arab Spring movement is also causing a Muslim â€Å"revival† of sorts, causing them to question their tolerance of Christians thus far. This revival has caused numerous incidents such as â€Å"church-burnings, rapes, mutilations, and murders†(Ali). Christians are being killed in Islamic cultures simply because of their religion.Yet this raises no alarm. Here in the West we have no idea how badly our fellow Christians suffer at the hands of Muslim countries. They constantly live in fear that their houses will be burned, their children killed, and them imprisoned with no hope of a fair trial. â€Å"From blasphemy laws to brutal murders to bombings to mutilations and the burning of holy sites, Christians in so many nations live in fear†(Ali). Christians and Muslims in Nigeria have been on the edge of civil war for years. A new Islamic radical group called Boko Harem provokes most of this action.This organization has stated that â€Å"it will kill all Christians living in the country†(Ali). â€Å"In the month of January 2012 alone, Boko Haram was responsible for 54 deaths†(Ali). This is insane! In the first month of this year, a month with a mere 31 days, Boko Haram has already killed 54 people. That’s almost two people a day. And this is only one group. In 2011, they killed at least 510 and burned down or destroyed more than 350 churches. This â€Å"Christophobia† that Africa is also found in Sudan, but in a very different form.The Sudanese authoritarian government has â€Å"for decades tormente d the Christian minorities in the south†(Ali). In Sudan, it is not extremist groups that are targeting Christians, but the government itself. It began in 2003, at the infamous genocide at Darfur. Since then, the Muslim president, Omar al-Bashir, has been indicted in the International Criminal Court in The Hauge of three counts of genocide (Omar al-Bashir). Even though he granted partial independence to south Sudan, the violence has not ended. Christians in south Sudan are still subject to aerial bombings, targeted killings, and the kidnapping of children (Ali).The UN reports that between 53,000 and 75,000 innocent civilians have been displaced from their homes (Ali). Not only are African Christians suffering, but also ones in the Middle East. Since 2003, more than 900 Iraqi Christians have been killed by terrorists’ actions and 70 churches have been burned in Baghdad alone. â€Å"Christians might disappear altogether from Iraq† says the chairman of the U. S. Comm ission on International Religious Freedom (Muslim Persecution of Christians). In Iran, the government is making laws that make it illegal to spread the Christian faith to the rest of the Iranians.Their goal is to â€Å"cleanse Iranian Christians†(Wahdat-Hagh), completely eradicating them from their country. There is so much hatred from the Islamic society that is directed towards Christians, and for no good reason. They torment and rape and mutilate and murder all Christians who are willing to stand up for what they believe in. And what do we do? What does western civilization do? We stand aside and allow it to happen. We turn a blind eye to our brothers and sisters who are being tortured and murdered for their beliefs, and allow it all to go on. We know it’s happening, but why do we stand aside?Why is America, the country that was founded on the principals of Christianity, the country that was founded for the purpose of escape from religious persecution, standing asid e and allowing people to be massacred? Are we so wrapped up in things of this world, are we so wrapped up in economy and money and oil that we stand aside and allow people to be brutally killed so that we can keep our gas prices low and our people safe? Even if we don’t all agree that Christians are right are wrong, don’t we all believe that human life is valuable, and that it must be preserved?We went to war with the Middle Eastern countries to fight this â€Å"War on Terror,† but what did that accomplish? Safety for our own borders, and not even that to its fullest extent. It did nothing to help the hundreds of thousands of Christians living in fear all around the world. So what should we do? We the people, of the United States of America, must go back to our roots, go back to the reason why we came here in the first place, and abandon all of our petty arguments, so that we can aid those who are the oppressed and the persecuted because of their faith.

History of the Periodic Table Essay

Explain how scientific observations led to the development of, and changes to, the periodic table. -Dmitri Mendeleev- first periodic table, organized 63 known elements according to properties, organized into rows and columns and wrote name, mass, and chemical properties on each -Julius Lothar Meyer- independently worked in Germany, similar to Mendeleev -Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley- Worked with Ernest Rutherford, experimented with 38 metals, he found that the positive charge of each element’s nucleus increased by one from element to element as they were arranged in Mendeleev’s periodic table, lead to modern definition of atomic number (# of protons in atom’s nucleus) and the recognition the atomic number was basis for organization of periodic table. Describe the organization of the modern periodic table. Arranged from left to right in rows (periods) by increasing atomic number and top to bottom in columns (groups) based on similar chemical properties Lesson 03.02: Group Names and Properties Compare and contrast the properties of metals, metalloids, and nonmetals. -Metals- good conductors of heat and electricity and reflect light and heat, most luster (shine) and most are malleable (hammered or rolled into sheets) -Non-metals- poor conductors of heat and electricity, most are gas at room temperature, those that are solid are not malleable -Metalloids- a semiconductor (conduct electricity better than non-metals but not as good as metals), some characteristics of metals but more like nonmetals Identify groups and sections of the periodic table by group name and common properties. 3.02 notes Lesson 03.03: Periodic Trends Describe and explain the trends for effective nuclear charge, atomic radius, ionic radius, and ionization energy across a period and down a group. -Effective Nuclear Charge- the charge (from the nucleus) felt by the valence electrons after you have taken into account the number of shielding electrons that surround the nucleus. -Atomic radius- half the distance  between the centers of two atoms of that element that are bonded together -Ionization Energy- the energy required to remove one electron from an element, resulting in a positive ion. -Ionic radius- One-half the diameter of an ion. A positive ion is called a cation, and a negative ion is called an anion. Nonmetals usually become anions and metals usually become cations. Predict the properties of an element based on the known patterns of the periodic table. Use periodic table Describe and explain the periodic trends for electron affinity (honors). Electron affinity-The energy involved when a neutral atom gains an electron Becomes more negative (more energy is given off) for each element across a period from Group 1 to Group 17 because of an increase in effective nuclear charge. Becomes less negative (more positive) going down a group, because each electron is being added to a higher energy level farther from the nucleus. Explain the exceptions to the trend across a period for ionization energy (honors). Noble gases in Group 18 all have positive electron affinity values. The noble gases must be forced to gain an electron because they already have a full valence energy level. The alkaline earth metals in Group 2 and the nonmetals in Group 15 both have electron affinity values close to zero due to electron repulsion and effective nuclear charge. Nitrogen, in Group 15, does not form a stable -1 ion because when an additional electron is added to nitrogen’s valence energy level, it is added to a 2p orbital that already has one electron. The weak attraction between the added electron and nitrogen’s nucleus is why there is not much energy given off. Lesson 03.04: Valence Electrons and Bonding Define and compare ionic and covalent bonding. -Ionic Bond- A chemical bond that results from electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions, electrons are given up by one atom and gained by another atom, and then those atoms are attracted to each other.  Between a metal and nonmetal. -Covalent bond- Electrons are shared between two atoms, neither atom completely gains or loses electrons. Between two nonmetals. Relate your knowledge of the periodic trends to the chemical bonding exhibited by various elements. Lesson 03.05: Ionic Bonding and Writing Formulas Determine an element’s ionic charge based on its location on the periodic table. Group 1- 1+ Group 2- 2+ Group 3- 3+ Group 4- 4+ Group 5- 3- Group 6- 2- Group 7- 1- Group 8- non-reactive noble gases Write the correct ionic formula when given two elements that bond ionically. Use question above and periodic table Lesson 03.06: Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures Determine how many covalent bonds an atom needs in order to fill its valence shell, using the periodic table. Must get to 8 valance electrons. Ex. Group 17 needs one more valance electron; group 6 needs 2 more valance electrons Draw correct Lewis structures to model covalently bonded molecules when given the name or formula of the molecule. Describe your observations and conclusions from the virtual lab. Lesson 03.07: Intermolecular Forces Use VSEPR theory to predict the shape of a molecule based on its Lewis structure. The VSEPR theory is about geometry of compounds and electron location. Compare and contrast intermolecular forces (London dispersion, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding, and ion-dipole). London dispersion forces occur between all molecules and particles but are the only force of attraction between nonpolar molecules or noble gas atoms. These forces are the weakest of the intermolecular forces. The London dispersion forces are caused by the motion of electrons. Dipole-dipole forces are electrostatic interactions of permanent dipoles in polar molecules. The attractive forces that occur between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule tend to align the molecules to increase the attraction. Hydrogen bonding is a particularly strong dipole-dipole interaction in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative element, and attracted to the very electronegative element in another molecule. It occurs only in molecules containing N-H, O-H or F-H bonds. Ion-dipole forces are attractive forces that result from the electrostatic attraction between an ionic compound and a polar molecule. This interaction is most commonly found in solutions, especially in solutions of ionic compounds in polar solvents, such as water. Identify the intermolecular forces experienced by different compounds. Intramolecular Forces: The forces of attraction that occur between individual molecules. Lesson 03.08: Naming Compounds Correctly name covalent compounds, ionic compounds, and acids when given their formulas. A metal forms a positive ion (cation) and a nonmetal forms a negative ion (anion). The cation and anion combine to form an ionic compound, more specifically referred to as a binary ionic compound. Write the formulas for ionic compounds, covalent compounds, and acids from their names. Name hydrates or write the formula of a hydrate when given its name (honors). Same prefixes Lesson 03.09: Molar Mass of Compounds Calculate the molar mass of compounds from the formula. Determine empirical formulas from percent by mass or mass data. Empirical formula: The formula of a compound in which the subscripts represent the lowest whole-number ratio of the atoms. Determine the molecular formula from the empirical formula and molar mass of a substance. No clue Calculate the molar mass of a hydrate and determine the formula of a hydrate from experimental data (honors). H2O- 18.015 Determine the empirical formula of a compound from the mass of the products  produced in experimental reactions (honors).

Present Perfect

Introduction The theme of the present paper is â€Å"The Present Perfect†. The main goal of the work is to identify the main features of the Present Perfect and to present the cases of its use, basing on the theoretical and scientific works of Russian, English linguists. The objectives of the work, in their turn, represent ascending steps to the main goal of the project: 1. to give the definition to the present perfect; 2. to present the ways of formation of the present perfect tense; 3. to investigate cases of its use in the sentence and in American and British English compare them ; 4. o draw the line of demarcation between the use of the Present Perfect and the Past Simple Actuality of the work is the significance of the present perfect tense in the English language. That is a linguistic phenomenon, which exists not in every language and which is replaced by other tenses while translated into other languages appears to be one of the main constituents of English grammar. Nov elty of the paper lies in communicative approaches to linguistic analysis of the use of the present perfect tense aimed at acquiring the communicative competence.Theoretical value of the paper is based on the analyzed data taken from the works of American and English prominent linguists. Practical value of the work may be useful in practical grammar or in a daily use. The course paper consists of 4 parts; Introduction, Main Part, Conclusion and Bibliography. The Main Part consists of 2 chapters. Thus, Chapter I of the present paper is devoted to the general remarks the present perfect tense and comprises 3 points: 1. History of the Present Perfect Tense 2.The Formation of the Present Perfect 3. Differences between the Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect In this chapter we can find out general information about the origin of perfect tenses and the present perfect tense itself, and the ways of forming the present perfect, and the differences between the past simple and the present perfect in use. Chapter II includes 2 points: 1. The use of the Present Perfect in the sentence 2. Differences in use of the Present Perfect in American and British English.This chapter is devoted to the practical side of the work. We investigate the use of the present perfect in the sentence and the differences of the use of the present perfect in American and British English. Chapter Two can be interesting with the presentation of peculiar characteristics of the use of the present perfect of two main trends of English: American and British English. The reason I chose the theme â€Å"The Present Perfect† was the situation of not having this tense in the for us familiar languages: Russian and Kyrgyz.The Past Simple and The Present Perfect are replaced by only one tense in Russian called â€Å" †. The nature of this tense seems to be familiar for the learners of English at first sight, but there are many exceptions and special cases of their use. CHAPTER I: What the Pr esent Perfect Tense is 1. 1 History of Perfect Tenses and the Present Perfect The Present Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Present Indefinite and the participle of the notional verb (e. g. I have worked. He has worked, etc. The word â€Å"perfect† in the name came from a Latin root referring to the idea of completion—of being now finished—rather than to perfection in the sense of â€Å"no flaws† (although the latter sense of â€Å"perfect† actually evolved by extension from the former, because something [for example, a drawing or a piece of pottery] is finished when it no longer has any flaws). So perfect tenses were named thus because of the idea that (in some uses in some languages, at least) they referred to actions that were finished with respect to the present (for example, â€Å"I have eaten all the bread† involves a sense of finality).However, as seen above, the name is a mi snomer in the sense that not all uses of present perfect constructions involve an idea of completion. In Old English the verb to have, used as the predicate in the sentence, was sometimes followed by direct object with participle II of a transitive verb attached to it on the function of a predicative adjective. The participle agreed in number, gender, case with the direct object. He has that book written= . As the state of the object ( written) was the result of the accomplished action, the mind of the speaker began to be interested in he action. The construction did not show whether the action expressed by participle II was performed by the subject of the sentence or by some other agent. It was from constructions where the subject of the sentence was the doer of the action denoted by the past participle, that the modern English perfect form developed. The participle lost its form of agreement with the noun-object and changing its place (He has written), became closely connected with the verb to have. Both elements lost their independent meaning and merged into one sense unit –the analytical form of the Modern English Perfect.He has written that book – the action of writing is accomplished by him at present and as a result of it the book is in a written state. Thus, what was originally a free syntactical combination has now turned into an analytical tense form. Such constructions, in which the doer of the action expressed by the participle was not the subject of the sentence, have still survived in Modern English as free syntactical combinations: He had three horses killed under him. I have my dress made here. Killed and made are still predictive adjectives to the direct object horses and dress.In construction with the verb to be, participle II of an intransitive verb was used as the predicative to the subject with which agreed in number, gender and case, and the verb to be had the function of a link-verb in a compound-nominal predicate: He i s ? ecumen = O? . When to have and to be –forms turned into perfect, the verb to have began gradually to be used as an auxiliary verb with both transitive and intransitive verbs: I have seen her. I have come. As a survival of the old constriction, to be is still used when the state is stressed: May Fielding was already come; and so was her mother. Dickens) When he was gone, my mother asked me all about the day I had had†¦ (Dickens)He is gone to the Leas†¦ (Bronte) The present perfect is a grammatical combination of the present tense and the perfect aspect, used to express a past event that has present consequences. An example is â€Å"I have eaten† (so I'm not hungry). Depending on the specific language, the events described by present perfects are not necessarily completed, as in â€Å"I have been eating† or â€Å"I have lived here for five years. The present perfect is a compound tense in English, as in many other languages, meaning that it is form ed by combining an auxiliary verb with the main verb. In modern English, the auxiliary verb for forming the present perfect is always to have. * I have eaten * You have gone * He has arrived In many other European languages, the equivalent of to have (e. g. , German haben, French avoir) is used to form the present perfect (or their equivalent of the present perfect) for most or all verbs. However, the equivalent of to be (e. g. German sein, French etre) serves as the auxiliary for other verbs in some languages such as German, Dutch, French, and Italian (but not Spanish or Portuguese). Generally, the verbs that take to be as auxiliary are intransitive verbs denoting motion or change of state (e. g. , to arrive, to go, to fall). In many European languages, including standard German, French and Italian, the present perfect verb form usually does not convey perfect aspect, but rather perfective aspect. In these languages, it has usurped the role of the simple past (i. . preterite) in sp oken language, and the simple past is now really only used in formal written language and literature. In standard English, Spanish, and Portuguese, by contrast, the present perfect (perfect) and simple past (perfective aspect) are kept distinct. The Present Perfect form denotes an action completed before the present moment (and connected with it) or before a definite moment in the past or future. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the required tense and Participle II of the notional verb 1. The formation of the Present Perfect 1. The Present Perfect is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb. 2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb. Affirmative| Interrogative| Negative| I have workedHe has workedShe has workedWe have workedYou have workedThey have worked| Have I worked? Has h e worked? Has she worked? Have we worked? Have you worked? Have they worked? I have not workedHe has not workedShe has not workedWe have not workedYou have not workedThey have not worked| 3. The contracted affirmative forms are: I’ve worked He’s worked You’ve worked The contracted negative forms are: I haven’t worked He hasn’t worked You haven’t worked 4. The negative-interrogative forms are: Has she not worked? Hasn’t she worked? Have you not worked? Haven’t you worked? 1. 3 Differences in between the Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect It follows from the rules above that the Present Perfect is not used when there is an indication of past time in the sentence.It is the Past Indefinite that is used in this case because the mention of the definite past time ties the action to the past- time sphere as it were, and it cannot break through to the present. e. g. â€Å"Put on your clothes at once and come with me. † †Å"But what is it? Has something happened? † â€Å"I'm afraid so. Your husband was taken ill this afternoon. † â€Å"M. Poirot, you have no idea of what I have gone through. † â€Å"I know your wife died just over a year ago. † Similarly, it is the Past Indefinite that is used in questions introduced by when. e. g.When did you actually arrive? When did you change your mind? The Past Indefinite is also used in special questions beginning with where and how when they refer to the past events. The Present Perfect is not common here because the attention in such sentences is drawn to the circumstances of the action rather than to the occurrence itself, which means that the speaker has a definite action in mind. e. g. â€Å"Where did your uncle receive his guests? † â€Å"Right here. † â€Å"How did he get in? † I asked, and Evans said, â€Å"Oh, he has a key. † â€Å"Where is my hat?Where did I leave my hat? † Note. The questi on Where have you been? can be asked of the person who has just come. e. g. ‘Hello, Mum. I'm sorry I'm late† â€Å"Where have you been? † In all other cases it should be Where were you! e. g. â€Å"Did the party go off nicely? † â€Å"I don't know. I wasn't there. † â€Å"Where were you? ‘ In special questions beginning with interrogative words other than those mentioned above (e. g. who, what, why, what †¦ for and other), both the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite are possible. The choice depends on the meaning to be conveyed.If reference is made to an action which is past or definite in the minds of the people speaking, or if there is a change of scene, the Past In definite is used; if reference is made to an action which is still valid as part of the present situation, the Present Perfect should be used. e. g. â€Å"What have I done against you? † she burst out defiantly. â€Å"Nothing. † â€Å"Then why can't we ge t on? † â€Å"I know she gave him a good scolding. † â€Å"What did he do? † Looking up at her he said: â€Å"Dorothy's gone to a garden party. † â€Å"I know. Why haven't you gone too? Why didn't you speak to my father yourself on the boat? Note 1. As to general questions, the Present Perfect as well as the Past Indefinite may be found in them because they may inquire either about new facts which are important for the present or about events that are definite in the mind of the speaker. Note 2. In the following example the verb to be is used in the meaning ‘to visit', ‘to go'. Hence it takes the preposition to after it. It is noteworthy that to be acquires this meaning only if used in the Present Perfect or the Past Perfect. e. g.Renny said: â€Å"He has been to Ireland too† â€Å"Have you been to a symphony concert? † he continued. Note 3. The combination has/have got may be used as the Present Perfect of the verb to get (which is not very common, though). e. g. I don't know what's got into Steven today. He has got into financial difficulties and needs cash. But it is often used as a set phrase which has two different meanings  Ã¢â‚¬â€ ‘to possess' (a) and ‘to be obliged' (b). e. g. a) â€Å"Have you got a telephone? † she looked round the room. â€Å"I don't think we've got any choice,† said Francis, ) â€Å"No† he said loudly, â€Å"there are some risks you've got to take. † â€Å"It doesn't matter what caused it,† said Martin. â€Å"We have got to take the consequences† In this case the time reference also changes  Ã¢â‚¬â€ has/have got is the Present Perfect only in form; it actually indicates a present state of things. Note 4. She is gone is a survival of the old Present Perfect which was formed with certain verbs by means of the auxiliary to be. In present-day English it is to be treated as a set phrase meaning ‘she is not here any lon ger'. CHAPTER II : The Use of the Present Perfect . 1 The use of the Present Perfect in the Sentence The Present Perfect falls within the time sphere of the , present and is not used in narration where reference is made to past events. It follows from that that the Present Perfect is used in present-time contexts, i. e. conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters. The Present Perfect has three distinct uses. They will be further referred to as Present Perfect I, Present Perfect II and Present Perfect III. 1) Present Perfect I is the Present Perfect proper.It is used to express an accomplished action which is viewed from the moment of speaking as part of the present situation. Attention in this case is centred on the action itself. The circumstances under which the action occurred appear unimportant and immaterial at the moment and need not be mentioned. e. g. He is very sensitive, I have discovered that. I've had a talk with him. He says he has all the proof he wants. Such news! We've bought a racehorse. â€Å"I've spoiled everything,† she said. His secretary said tactfully: â€Å"I've put off your other appoint- ments for a while. It should be especially noted that though the action expressed in the Present Perfect is regarded as already accomplished, it belongs to the present-time sphere and is treated as a present action. It becomes obvious from the periphrasis: I've heard the doctor's opinion —> I know the doctor's opinion. She's gone off to the woods —> She is in the woods. A similar idea of an accomplished action is also traced in such expressions referring to the present as He is awake. I'm late. The work is done. The door is locked, etc.Since it is the action itself that the Present Perfect makes im- portant, it is frequently used to open up conversations (newspaper and radio reports, or letters) or to introduce a new topic in them. However, if the conversation (report or letter) continues on the same subject, going into detail, the Present Perfect usually changes to the Past Indefinite, as the latter is used to refer to actions or sit- uations which are definite in the mind of the speaker. Usually (but not necessarily) some concrete circumstances of the action (time, place, cause, purpose, manner, etc. are mentioned in this case. e. g. â€Å"You are all right. You are coming round. Are you feeling better? † â€Å"I'm quite all right. But what has happened? Where am I? † â€Å"You're in a dug-out, You were buried by a bomb from a trench-mortar. † â€Å"Oh, was I? But how did I get here? † â€Å"Someone dragged you. I am afraid some of your men were killed, and several others were wounded. † â€Å"Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat, Where have you been? † â€Å"I've been to London To look at the Queen. † â€Å"What did you see there? † â€Å"I saw a little mouse Under her chair. â€Å"As is seen from the above examples, the Present Perfect is us ed to name a new action, whereas the Past Indefinite is used to refer back to a definite action and the attention in this case is often drawn rather to the circumstances attending the action than to the action itself. Note. The functions of the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite may be in a way compared with those of the indefinite and the definite articles. The indefinite article is used when an object is just named (e. g. Glue me a book. She is a teacher. I have a brother).Likewise the Present Perfect serves to name an accomplished action (see the examples above). Both the definite article and the Past Indefinite are used when an object or an action, respectively, is definite in the mind of the speaker (e. g. The book is on the table. The teacher returned the compositions,) As has been said, Present Perfect I is mainly used to introduce a new topic. But it may also be used to sum up a situation. e. g. â€Å"I've done bad things,† I said, â€Å"but I don't think I coul d have done some of the things you've done. † â€Å"You've so often been helpful in the past. â€Å"I've tried,† said Joseph. We've all been young once, you know. We've all felt it, Roy. â€Å"I'm afraid I've been horribly boring and talked too much,† she said as she pressed my hand. â€Å"Agatha has told me everything. How cleverly you have both kept your secret,† â€Å"You and your wife have been very good to me. Thank you. † In accordance with its main function  Ã¢â‚¬â€ just to name an accomplished action  Ã¢â‚¬â€ the Present Perfect is generally used when [the time of the action is not given. e. g. He sat down. â€Å"You have not changed,† he said. â€Å"No? What have you come for? † â€Å"To discuss things. â€Å"Mr has told me such wonderful things about you. Walter. † â€Å"I haven't thought about it,† she returned. However, sometimes, even though there may be no indication of past time in the sentence, th e Present Perfect cannot be used because reference is made to happenings which are definite in the mind of the speaker (either because the action has already been mentioned or because the situation is very well known to the listener). In this case the use of the Past Indefinite is very common. e. g. Did you sleep well? I didn't understand you. Did you enjoy the play?Did you have a good journey Did you like the book? (trip, ride, flight, day, time)? What did you say? Did you see the accident? Did you hear what he said? I'm sorry I lost my temper. I didn't hear your question. It is possible, however, to use the Present Perfect when there is an adverbial modifier of time in the sentence that denotes a period of time which is not over yet, e. g. today, this morning, this week, this month, this year, etc. e. g. What Rosanna has done tonight is clear enough, (Tonight is not over yet. ) This year we have taken only one assistant. (This year is not over. I have had only one new dress this s ummer,† exclaimed June. (This summer is not over yet. ) Conversely, if the period is over or reference is made to a particular past point of time within that period, the Past Indefinite is used. e. g. â€Å"Did you see the letter in the â€Å"Times† this morning? (It is no longer morning. ) â€Å"No. I haven't had time to look at a paper today,† (Today is not over yet. ) â€Å"Whom do you think I passed in Richmond Park today! † (Today is not over, but the action took place at a particular point of time within today, namely when the person was in Richmond Park. â€Å"I wasn't very well this morning, but I'm perfectly all right now. † (This morning is over. ) Note. It should be noted that sometimes an adverbial modifier of place points to a past period of time. e. g. Did you see him at the theatre? (= when you were at the theatre) I ran into her in Oxford Street. (= when I was in Oxford Street) The Present Perfect may be found with certain adverbs o f indefinite time and frequency such as just (‘ '), not †¦ yet, already, before, always, ever, never, often, seldom, recently, late ly, of late, etc. e. g. She's just missed being run over.I haven't even had coffee yet. He has never made a sixpence by any of his books. Have you heard of him lately? â€Å"What is the point? † â€Å"I've made it clear enough before. † However, the use of the Present Perfect is by no means obligatory with the above mentioned adverbs, because any other finite form may be used with these adverbs if it is required by the situation. e. g. He was studying to be a pianist, but he never touches the piano now. He noticed that the leaves of the chestnut were already beginning to turn yellow and brown. His room was not yet furnished, and he liked it to remain empty. Note 1.Note the use of the Past Indefinite with just now. e. g. I told you just now I had never had time for much fun. Note 2. Russian students of English, under the influenc e of the Russian language, tend to use the adverb already nearly in every sentence containing the Present Perfect. That is not characteristic of the English language as it is sufficient to use the Present Perfect alone to express an accomplished action. The addition of already appears redundant in many cases. Present Perfect II serves to express an action which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it or up to it.This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Present Perfect Continuous. However, the Present Perfect Non-Continuous is found in the following cases: a)Its use is compulsory with stative verbs. e. g. I've known the young lady all her life. I've loved her since she was a child. â€Å"But we've been in conference for two hours,† he said. â€Å"It's time we had a tea break. † b)With some dynamic verbs of durative meaning the Present Perfect is sometimes used instead of the Present Perfect Continuous with little difference in meaning. e. g. â€Å"It's a pretty room, isn't it? â€Å"I've slept in it for fifteen years. † â€Å"I'm glad to meet you,† he said. â€Å"I've waited a long while and began to be afraid I'd not have the opportunity. † He's looked after Miss Gregg for many years now. As to terminative verbs, they can only have the meaning of Present Perfect I and never of Present Perfect II. Since it is often difficult to draw the line between durative and terminative verbs, it is recommended that students of English should use the Present Perfect Continuous with all dynamic verbs to express an action begun in the past and continued into the present. )The Present Perfect is preferred to the Present Perfect Continuous in negative sentences, when it is the action itself that is completely negated. e. g. â€Å"Shall we sit down a little? We haven't sat here for ages. † â€Å"I was just having a look at the paper,† he said. â€Å"I haven't read the paper for the last two days. â⠂¬  â€Å"She hasn't written to me for a year,† said Roy. It is noteworthy that Present Perfect II is associated with certain time indications  Ã¢â‚¬â€ either the whole period of the duration of the action is marked or its starting point.In the former case we find different time indications. Some expressions are introduced by the preposition for and sometimes in (e. g. for an hour, for many years, for the last few days, for a long time, for so long, for ages, in years, in a long while, etc. )- Other expressions have no prepositions (e. g. these three years, all this week, all along, so long, all oneys life, etc. ). e. g. The picture has been mine for years and years. I've felt differently about him for some time. â€Å"Why haven't I seen you all these months? † said Hankins.We haven't had any fun in a long while. I've wanted to go to the sea all my life. The starting point of the action is indicated by the adverb since, a prepositional phrase with since or a clause introduced by the conjunction since. e. g. â€Å"But, Dinny, when did you meet him? † â€Å"Only ten days ago, but I've seen him every day since. † The sun has been in the room since the morning. But she has seemed so much better since you started the injections. In the clause introduced by since the Past Indefinite is used to indicate the starting point of an action.However, we sometimes find in both parts of such complex sentences two parallel actions which began at the same time in the past and continue into the present. In this case the Present Perfect is used in both clauses, e. g. I've loved you since I've known you. It should be noted that the indication of time is indispensable to Present Perfect II because otherwise its meaning in most cases would be changed. It would come to denote an accomplished action which is part of the present situation. Cf. I've been taught to do it for three years. I have been taught to do it. But we met him here about a month ago.We haven't heard from him since. We haven't heard from him. Care should be taken to distinguish between the use of the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite when the period of duration is expressed by a prepositional phrase with for. If the period of duration belongs to the past time sphere, the Past Indefinite should be used. It is only if the period of duration comes close to the moment of speaking or includes it that the Present Perfect is used. Cf. â€Å"I have lived like this,† he said, â€Å"for two years, and I can't stand it anymore. † â€Å"I teach History at a secondary school.I went to the University here for four years and got a degree. † The same is true of questions beginning with how long. â€Å"Are you married? † â€Å"Yes. † â€Å"How long have you been married? † â€Å"Are you married? † â€Å"No. I'm divorced. † â€Å"How long were you married? † 3) Present Perfect III is found in adverbial clauses of time introduced by the conjunctions when, before, after, as soon as, till and until where it is used to express a future action. It shows that the action of the subordinate clause will be accomplished before the action of the principal clause (which is usually expressed by the Future Indefinite).This use of the Present Perfect is structurally dependent as it is restricted only to the above mentioned type of clauses. e. g. â€Å"You'll find,† said Fred, â€Å"that you'll long for home when you have left it. † As soon as we have had some tea, Ann, we shall go to inspect your house. I'll take you back in my car but not till I've made you some coffee. Sometimes the Present Indefinite is found in this type of clauses in the same meaning as the Present Perfect. The choice of the form depends on the lexical meaning of the verb. With durative verbs the Present Perfect is necessary. e. g. When you have had your tea, we'll see about it.I can tell you whether the machine is good or bad when I have tried it. With terminative verbs the use of both forms is possible, Cf. He says when he retires he'll grow roses. When I've finished this I must go and put the baby to bed. Mother will stay at home until we return. â€Å"Your mother wouldn't like me. † â€Å"You can't possibly say that until you've met her. † 2. 2 Differences in Use of the Present Perfect in American and British English In British English the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment.For example: I've lost my key. Can you help me look for it? In American English the following is also possible: I lost my key. Can you help me look for it? In British English the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms are generally accepted in standard American English. Other differences involving the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in American English include already, just and yet. British English: I've just had lunch I've already seen that film Have you finished your homework yet? American English:I just had lunch OR I've just had lunch I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film. Have your finished your homework yet? OR Did you finish your homework yet? American English speakers do not use the present perfect for events that are still connected to the present. However, most Americans have a narrower perception of such connections than do other English speakers, particularly the British. For example, the British will say â€Å"have you had breakfast this morning,† but Americans will often say â€Å"did you have breakfast this morning. There is no difference in grammar; the difference is in the fact that Americans often think of the morning as being past history, whereas the British tend to see breakfast as still being part of the day, at least for a longer time than Americans do. Both groups use the past simple to describe things that they perceive to be unconnected with the present, and both groups use the present perfect to describe things that they perceive to be connected with the present. The difference is in the perception, not the grammar.Some Americans may well use the present perfect, if that's how they perceive the action in question. Conversely, some British speakers may use the past simple, if they think of the action in question as being isolated in the past. The important thing to remember is that, in many expressions, the choice between present perfect and past simple depends solely on what the speaker has in mind. If the speaker perceives something as being completely finished and unconnected to the present, he'll use the past simple; if he still sees some sort of connection to the present, he'll use the present perfect.Two different people talking about the exact same thing may choose to use two different tenses to describe it. There are some cases in which one tense or the other is gramatically necessary, of course, but there are many cases in which both are acceptable. If you specify a particular time in the past, for example, you normally use the past simple (â€Å"I did it yesterday†). And if you say â€Å"I've lived here for a year,† the implication is that you still live here, whereas if you say â€Å"I lived here for ayear,† the implication is that you no longer live here.Similarly, if a woman says â€Å"I've had two children,† things are going well, but if she says â€Å"I had two children,† it might be a good idea to change the subject. The distinction between present perfect and past simple is difficult to explain in terms of rules because the rules are quite complex. I usually explain it in terms of the speaker's perceptions and via specific examples that illustrate the different ways in which the tenses can be contrasted. If someone says â€Å"John went to the movie,† it tells me several things. It tells me that John is not with the speaker, for example.It implies that the speaker probably does not expect to encounter John while he is at the movie. It implies that nothing the speaker is doing right now is connected to John's trip to the movie. If someone says â€Å"John has gone to the movie,† that, too, tells me several things. It implies that John's trip to the movie is recent. It implies that something about John's action is connected to some present state or action in the speaker's mind (for example, she may be planning to join him, or she may be describing the reason for his absence in the present, as when answering the telephone).In many cases, the choice between the two is almost arbitrary. In isolation, the present perfect sounds more recent, and/or implies that something may have happened more than once in the past, and implies a connection with the present somehow, but in many contexts these distinctions are unimportant. If someone answers the phone and is asked about John, she wi ll probably say â€Å"He has gone to the movie,† but she might also very well say â€Å"He went to the movie,† particularly if she is American (Americans have a narrower perception of â€Å"present time† than do many other English speakers).Conclusion After investigation of the theme â€Å"The Present Perfect Tense† I came to the conclusion that although the perfect tenses are called as the secondary tenses in the works of Russian scientists Ganshina and Vasilevskaya, it appears to be one of the main and indispensable constituents of the English language tense form. Every action leads to the results. Without results the action is not valuable. So the essence of using the perfect tenses is in expressing the results, consequences and the level of accomplishment and duration of the action.The present perfect tense and its use follow the learners of the English language from the first stage of the learning and of a great importance on the same level as the ve rb ‘to be’ or there is/ there are constructions. So, on the basis of the theoretical and practical investigation of the use of perfect tenses in the works of prominent Russian and English scientists and within American and British fiction conforming to the examined theory, we have reached the following results of the research work: The Perfect form denotes an action completed before the present moment (and connected with it) or before a definite moment in the ast or future. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the required tense and Participle II of the notional verb. The Present Perfect is used in the following cases: 1. The Present Perfect denotes a completed action connected with the present. 2. The Present Perfect is used in adverbial clauses of time after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after, as soon as to denote an action completed before a definite moment in the future. 3. The Present Perfect denotes an action which began in the pas t, has been going on up to the present and is still going on.In this case either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of duration. Since is used to indicate the starting point of the action. If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite. In British English the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment. For example: I've lost my key.In American English the following is also possible: I lost my key. In British English the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms are generally accepted in standard American English. Other differences involving the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in American English include already, just and yet. British English: I've just had lunch American English: I just had lunch OR I've just had l unch American English speakers do not use the present perfect for events that are still connected to the present.However, most Americans have a narrower perception of such connections than do other English speakers, particularly the British. Bibliography 1. ?. ?. , , , 1968, 227 . 2. ?. ?. , A Grammar of Present Day, ,  «Ã‚ »,1990, 100 . 3. Greenbaum Sidney, Oxford English Grammar, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996, 652 p. 4. Greenbaum Sidney, Quirk R. , Leech G. , Svartvik J, A University Grammar of English, Moscow, 1982, p. 158 5. Newsperson Otto, University of Grammar, Chicago and London, The

Reign of God Essay

I have read chapter three in Reign of God in its entirety. In chapter 3, it described about God’s character and the basis of God’s kingdom. Everyone knows that the father of Jesus Christ is God. And God has relation to Jesus identifies him as God to us. So if we want to know God, we need to go to Jesus first. To summarize what is the most important statement in the Bible is â€Å" God is love. † Love is the first and the last word in the biblical portrait of God. Some people may think that love is the most difficult things to learn in our entire life. But God had already told us what love is though the bible. Love is the essence of God’s nature. Love is what it means to be God. To the english word â€Å"love† ,it covers an enormous range of meaning. We use love to describe our attitude toward everything from our favourite food, people that important to us and also things that we treasure. Nowadays, we use love and we say it with no any condition. But is there anyone can able to be uncondition to love others? Maybe yes, but I can sure about that, there are only a few amount of human in the world. However, God can. He love the world that he gave his one and only son to us. This is how God showed his love amoung us: He sent his one and only Son into the world that we might live through him. This is love: not that we loved God, but that he oved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for our sins† (1 John 4:9-10). God’s love is very powerful and tenacious. It is powerful enough to let him forgive our sins. People often wonder how the same being can be at once a compassionate, forgiving parent and a stern judge og evildoers. Since God’s love is unconditional, so he can accept our sins and give a second chance to amend ourselves.